Surveillance and the State Essay Example for Free

Surveillance and the State Essay Introduction The UK is increasingly sleep walking into a surveillance society[1] to the extent that it has become an inescapable part of life.[2] Every time we make a telephone call, send an email, browse the internet, or even walk down our local high street, our actions may be monitored and recorded.[3] The increasing prevalence of surveillance has perhaps led to the state being viewed by its citizens as the Big Brother of Orwellian fame. This essay intends to focus on the impact of government surveillance and data collection has upon the privacy of citizens and, as a consequence, their relationship with the state. To effectively answer this question there needs to be an examination of the various forms of surveillance and data collection and whether they are constitutionally proper or improper, intrusive or legal, and whether there should be limitations to the quantity of information collated. The advancement of technology in the 21st century has enhanced the quantity and integrity of surveillance information which begs the question are we as a nation ‘too stupid’ to realise how intrusive the UK’s surveillance regime is? Is a citizen’s liberty and privacy at stake with the effects of surveillance from both public and private sector? Furthermore is the legislation governing this issue sufficient in its application? All these matters will be addressed. However, as there are so many forms of surveillance, there will be a particular emphasis on mass surveillance and the use of CCTV and databases. The need for a widespread belief in the importance of individual freedom and executive accountability is undoubtedly a prerequisite to the success of a constitutional democracy. Understanding Surveillance and its Components. The term ‘surveillance’ can be briefly defined as ‘watching over’ which indicates monitoring the behaviour of persons, objects, or systems.[4] There are two broad types of surveillance, mass surveillance and targeted surveillance. Mass Surveillance is not targeted on any particular individual and gathers information for future use, further, it has the potential to erode privacy. Whereas targeted is directed at particular individuals. It can be carried out under a covert or overt means If it is carried out under a covert operation, it is important to note, that the citizen is unaware of the use of targeted surveillance, so therefore the relationship with the state is unaffected by the use of this type. However if in the event where there was unlawful targeted surveillance and the individual was to become aware, the consequences can be detrimental to the relationship between the citizen and the state. It is important to note that alongside the state there are non state agencies and organizations which also occupy an increasingly significant component of surveillance systems today. The case of Patton v Poole Borough council where, only after the surveillance had been completed by the council on a family, were they made aware of this. The council believed they were acting in accordance with RIPA, and that ‘it was necessary for the prevention and detection of crime and it was proportionate for determining the genuineness of information supplied by Ms Patton.’ [5] The tribunal in this instance found the council was in breach of RIPA and did not act in accordance with Article 8. In coming to this conclusion the court had to determine the issue of whether the actions carried out by the council was necessary for the prevention or detection of crime and was it proportionate to what sought to be achieved. The legislation governing Surveillance and the protection of citizens is outlined in the Data Protection Act 1998, Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000, the Freedom of Information Act 2000 and the 1995 European Data Protection Directive 95/46/EC. The Data Protection Act governs the protection of personal data; however this act does not mention privacy of the individual. Privacy The need for privacy is fundamental in a high surveillance society such as the UK. Privacy Internationals survey in 2007 which covered 47 countries indicated there had been in an increase in surveillance in the past year to the detriment of privacy safeguards. 8 of these 47 countries were rated as being ‘endemic surveillance societies’ which included the UK. [6] The need to protect and facilitate the development of privacy of the citizen in order to maintain healthy functioning of society is a necessity with the advancement of technology. Privacy is recognised as a fundamental right by various legal instruments,[7] although Article 8(2) of the European Convention on Human Rights provides limitations.[8] However in English law it is a known fact that there is no right to privacy, it has been suggested that privacy is of such importance to humanity that in the past it needed little formal protection.[9] The high profile case of Kaye v Robertson[10] illustrated the need for the right to privacy in the UK, where photographs of Gorden Kaye were published as he lay suffering from injuries in a car crash. Governments The government’s evidence does not itself explain how the collection of information helps in the pursuit of their objectives, or whether existing processing practices are proportionate to those objectives.[11] The need for this may result in a conflict between the interests of the citizen and the aims of the state. Concerns were also raised about whether government agencies and other public bodies understood how the principles of necessity and proportionality operate in the context of privacy and limitations set out in article 8(2). In order to justify a an interference with article 8’s stipulations, the state must be able to show that it is acting lawfully and for a legitimate aim and the interference is both necessary and proportionate [12] (Hugh Tomlinson p 440) CCTV and how it relates to citizens A Home Office Study concluded that ‘the CCTV schemes that have been assessed had little overall effect on crime levels.’[13] Critics further argue that mass intrusion into peoples movements may not be proportionate and a breach of their rights to privacy under the Human Rights Act.[14] On the roads, camera based restrictions of speed has increased from 300,000 in 1996 to over 2 million in 2004 where an estimated  £113 million in fines have been generated per annum.[15] These statistics have not been welcomed by citizens and have received negative press on the issue. However the overall increase in CCTV on the roads has no doubt contributed to a reduction in deaths and injuries. The state acknowledges how CCTV is valuable in preventing and detecting crime and the overall safety of society. Citizens can be reassured that they can go about their daily business with confidence, it gives members of the business community added security and sends a clear message to those engaged in crime or anti social behaviour that they will be caught and will be prosecuted.[16] Further councillor Hazel Harding acknowledges how CCTV is popular with law abiding members who see it as a preventative and feel much safer [17] agreeing with many members of society who believe, if ‘you have nothing to fear if you have nothing to hide.’ However the Association of Chief Police Officers (ACPO) recognised the contribution of CCTV images is not recorded in a systematic manner.[18] For example, the increased use of Automatic Number Plate Recognition, where cameras can read number plates and then check them against police databases to see if the cars are wanted for any reason, such as road tax, insurance and MOT. However this is not the only purpose of these cameras, every road userâ€℠¢s journeys are stored on a PSNI database for a minimum of two years regardless of the innocence of the subjects. There are about 10 billion innocent people movements stored on the UK database to date. 15 million innocent people’s details are logged and stored everyday.[19] The use of sophisticated data mining software such as ‘Northgate BOF 2.3, Advanced Data Miner’ is used by all police forces in the UK, which allows every journey a person makes to be tracked, traced, mapped and spied upon for the previous two years. Furthermore this is done without individuals consent. Furthermore to date, there has been no parliamentary debate nor legislation passed regulating its use. The system has no safeguards or independent scrutiny in place. The view that ‘there is not and never can be justification for harvesting and storing data information from innocent law abiding citizens by a government without the explicit permission of the individual.’ On the other hand ANPR can be seen as an internationally recognised tool that can significantly reduce volume crime, provided the police use their ANPR system in a lawful, ethical and accountable manner; for the purpose of preventing and detecting terrorism, serious crime, volume crime and road traffic offences.[20] The question arises are the benefits of this outweighing the costs. Such technology enhances the notion that we are living in a surveillance society, others might argue that anything seen as aiding the police to catch murderers and combat crime is necessary. The information Commissioners Office, which advices organisations on the use of CCTV, says cameras must be reasonable and proportionate to maintain public trust and must not breach the Data Protection Act.[21] The Data Protection Act 1998 states that it should be clear from the outset that the purpose of the CCTV recording is to be stipulated and any subsequent deviation from that purpose constitutes a breach of the legislation. This can be applied to any form of information collation where it should only be used for the purpose it was originally intended. Databases ‘There is a need to gather and access personal information to: support the delivery of personalised and better public services; fight crime and protect security; reduce the burden on business and the citizen, and tackle social exclusion through early intervention.’[22] This quotation reflects on the acceptable intention of surveillance and is perceived as an indispensable tool in the day to day operation of social systems. Whereas once it was fairly safe to assume that personal records kept for purposes such as health, policing, social insurance, banking and driver licensing would be stored in relatively watertight containers, the computerization of these records means that they are readily amenable to different forms of integration. Given the immense value placed on personal data, both for commercial exploitation and for risk management, huge pressure is placed on these containers to yield their secrets in shareable ways..[23] Surveillance in this context means focused attention to personal details aimed at exerting an influence over or managing the objects of data or data subjects as they are sometimes called. [24] It can be considered an aiding instrument to organise. Under the Data Protection Act, bodies that are collecting and collating data, be it health records, revenue information or even a school recording pupil information, are legally required to pay an annual fee of  £35 to register with the Information Commissioner that they are collecting and storing such information. There is a two tier structure based on the organisation’s size and turnover, notification fee’s of  £500 applies to data controllers with a turnover of over  £25.9 million or employs over 250 members of staff.[25] What is of concern is who monitors how this information is being used and how secure it is, or to put it another way, who watches the watchers? These questions concern the accountability of data collection. It is only when there is a breach of security that there is awareness that not all bodies are compliant with the Commissioner’s requirements. These breaches tend to become of real public concern when they come to the attention of the media, affecting public relations with the governing bodies to the level of mistrust. For instance in December 2007, it was revealed that a computer hard drive with the details of 3,000,000 UK learner drivers had gone missing in the USA and that the details of 7,500 vehicles and their owner had been lost by the Driver and Vehicle Agency in Northern Ireland. Also in DATE the junior officers of HMRC lost personal details of all families in the UK with a child under 16. The corroborative of data collection this is in the combating of fraud. This can be considered as a law enforcement activity which uses data collection. Statistics have indicated that the use of this form of surveillance to combat fraud can be considered proportionate to combating its aims as success in respect of NHS savings of  £189 million in 2005, the National fraud Initiative savings of  £111 million in 2005-06, and  £10 million saved in respect of cheque and plastic card fraud.[26] Where revenue databases are concerned it is not unreasonable to assume that every individual is treated as a suspect. Innocent people are investigated. Here the question arises again, is the invasion of an individual’s privacy necessary in order to prevent fraudulent claims? Conclusion In conclusion, the advances in technology in this field have permeated our society resulting in the citizen subconsciously accepting surveillance as part of every day life. Surveillance data can be very powerful and can enable consumers to perform a wide range of functions, which can be perceived as part of the issue – how wide should that use deviate from the initial intention before it can be deemed explorative and ultimately exploitive. Among these functions include assessing banking information, health records, constructing consumer profiles in the name of facilitating efficient services, the topical issue of mobile phone calls, and sending and receiving electronic mail.[27] It is important to realise that these same advantages can be considered a threat to certain aspects of society through misuse and mismanagement. There are two sides to this argument of proportionality. And no conclusive all-embracing solution. Perhaps we are due a sequel of George Orwell’s publication, possibly titled â€Å"2084†. One wonders what premonitions would he postulate if he were here today. The introduction of CCTV was viewed as a tool to reduce the amount of crime. To date there is very little substantive research evidence to support this.[28] Perhaps if the state were to provide more community policing on the streets of the UK this may be more productive. Further, a review carried out by the Home Office that looked at street lighting found a significant reduction in the levels of crime to the order of 20%.[29] The results from a YouGov Poll[30] have indicated that 79% of people believe that Britain is increasingly being described as a surveillance society. And a further 66% do not trust governments of whatever political party to keep information on databases confidential. Although 97% agree to CCTV in banks and building societies and a further 85% In my opinion the state wishes to control us absolutely, and to achieve this, it must know absolutely everything about us, every minute of our day. Surveillance Web – the rise of visual surveillance in an English city Bibliography Legislation Textbooks Goold B and Neyland D, New Directions in Surveillance and Privacy (2009 Willan Publishing.) Haggerty K and Samatas M, Surveillance and Democracy, (2010 Routledge.) Hier S and Green J, The Surveillance Studies Reader, (2007 Open University Press) Mattelart A, The Globalization of Surveillance, (2010 Polity Press.) Barendt, Privacy as a constitutional Right and Value, (1997 Oxford University Press) Journals Taylor N, ‘State Surveillance and the Right to Privacy’ Surveillance and Society 1(1):66-85. Lyon D, ‘Everyday Surveillance, Personal Data and social classifications’ Information Communication Society, (2002) Routledge. vol 5 issue 2, Websites Privacy International Leading Surveillance Societies in the EU and the World Survey 2007 accessed 3December 2011. Nidirect Government Services, How is CCTV used in the Community, accessed 05 December 2011. http://www.bigbrotheriswatching.co.uk/ http://www.ico.gov.uk/for_organisations/data_protection/notification/cost.aspx Information Commissioners Office website. Newspaper articles R Ford, ‘Beware Rise of Big Brother State, warns data Watchdog’ The Times,16 August 2004. Sunday Times, A Camera network designed to catch criminals is being turned on innocent motorists reports David Leppard. 4/4/2010. Philip Johnson, Home Affairs Editor, Your Life in their Lens, 02 November 2006 The Telegraph. Q A Birmingham Terrorist Cameras, 17 June 2010. YouGov/ Daily Telegraph, 28th- 30th November 2006. Miscellaneous Surveillance: Citizens and the State Volume 1: Report House of Lords select committee on the Constitution 2nd Report of Session 2008-09. M Gill and A Spriggs Assessing the Impact of CCTV, London Home Office Research, Development and Statistics Directorie, 43, 60-61. Surveillance, Order and Social Control End of Award Report to the Economic and Social Research Council in respect of grant L210252023 Clive Norris Department of Social Policy, University of Hull State Surveillance and the Right to Privacy Nick Taylor1 Jane Clift Respondent and Slough Borough Council Your life in their lens the telegraph [1] R Ford, ‘Beware Rise of Big Brother State, warns data Watchdog’ The Times,16 August 2004. [2] Surveillance: Citizens and the State Volume 1: Report House of Lords select committee on the Constitution 2nd Report of Session 2008-09 para 1. [3] Ibid. [4] Ibid para 18 [5] Patton v Poole Borough Council (2010) IPT/09/01/C) para 8. [6] Privacy International Leading Surveillance Societies in the EU and the World Survey 2007 accessed 3December 2011. [7] See UN General Assembly, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 10 December 1948, Council of Europe, European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and fundamental freedoms, 4 November 1950, Directive 95/46/EC on the Protection of individuals with regard to the processing of personal data and the free movement of such data. Privacy regulations aimed at governing how personal information is processed were introduced in the 1970’s and 1980’s. [8] European Convention on Human Rights, Article 8(2) There shall be no interference by public authority with the exercise of this right except such as is in accordance with the law and is necessary in a democratic society in the interests of national security, public safety or the economic well being of the country. [9] Barendt, Privacy as a constitutional Right and Value, (Oxford University Press 1997) p 7. [10] Kaye v Robertson [1991] FSR 62. [11] Surveillance: Citizens and the State Report, (n2) at 69. [12] Surveillance: Citizens and the State Report, (n2) at 127. [13] M Gill and A Spriggs Assessing the Impact of CCTV, London Home Office Research, Development and Statistics Directorie, 43, 60-61. [14] Sunday Times, A Camera network designed to catch criminals is being turned on innocent motorists reports David Leppard. 4/4/2010. [15] Philip Johnson, Home Affairs Editor, Your Life in their Lens, 02 November 2006 The Telegraph. [16]Nidirect Government Services, How is CCTV used in the Community, accessed 05 December 2011. [17] Councillor Hazel Harding, Leader of Lancashire County Council and chair of the Local Government Association Safer Communities Board. [18] Surveillance: Citizens and the State (n2) at 74 [19] http://www.bigbrotheriswatching.co.uk/ [20] Police Service of Northern Ireland, Policy Directive PD 01/08 PSNI ANPR Systems, 17 December 2007. [21] http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10341867 Q A Birmingham Terrorist Cameras, 17 June 2010. [22] Ibid at p 21. [23] Surveillance studies Reader – Get in short loan lib [24] D Lyon, ‘Everyday Surveillance, Personal Data and social classifications’ Information Communication Society, vol 5 issue 2, (2002) Routledge. P 1. [25] http://www.ico.gov.uk/for_organisations/data_protection/notification/cost.aspx Information Commissioners Office website. [26] Surveillance state and citizens report. [27] S Hier and J Green, The Surveillance Studies Reader, Open University Press, (2007) pg. 77. [28] R Armitage, ‘To CCTV or not to CCTV’ (2002) Nacro, Crime and Social Policy Section [29] Ibid. [30] YouGov/ Daily Telegraph, 28th- 30th November 2006.

Semantic Web :: Technology, The Green Guide

To establish the extent to which semantic web has been applied in the sustainable building technology domain, an extensive literature search was undertaken. One of the key findings of the review was that there was no real significant application of the semantic web to sustainable building technologies. The few studies with at least some sustainability issues in the built environment are in Macris and Georgakellos (2006) and Edum-Fotwe and Price (2009). Macris and Georgakellos (2006) explored the use of ontologies to help students to understand the contemporary global environmental issues, how they are linked and interrelated and to consider the different views of these issues, before reaching a decision or judgment. Edum-Fotwe and Price (2009), on the other hand, explored the use of ontologies in appraising sustainability of construction projects and development from the social component of sustainable development. The ontologies developed by Macris and Georgakellos (2006) and Edum-F otwe and Price (2009) are nothing more than academic papers and have never gone beyond prototypical system levels. However, it emerged that there is abundance of green/sustainability specifications/standards/ratings/metrics in the literature dealing with various aspects of sustainable constructions. Some examples of these specifications are the Market Transformation Programme database that contains the different building household appliances in the UK houses arranged in a well-defined taxonomy (Market Transformation Programme 2010; Firth et al. 2008; Wood and Newborough 2007), the Green Guide to Specifications (Anderson et al. 2009), the Uniclass (Smith et al. 1997) and the Leadership in Energy & Environmental Design (LEED 2010). The Green Guide aims to provide a simple green guide to the environmental impacts of building materials which is easy-to-use and soundly based on numerical data. Uniclass is a new recent classification scheme for the construction industryindustry (Smith et al. 1997). It is intended for organising library materials and for structuring product literature and project information. It incorporates both CAWS (Common Arrangement of Work Sections for building works) and EPIC (Electronic Product Information Co-operation), a new system for structuring product data and product literature. The Green Guide is part of BREEAM (BRE Environmental Assessment Method) an accredited environmental rating scheme for buildings. LEED is an internationally recognized green building certification system developed by the US Green Building Council, providing third-party verification that a building or community was designed and built using strategies intended to improve performance in metrics such as energy savings, water efficiency, CO2 emissions reduction, improved indoor environmental quality, and stewardship of resources and sensitivity to their impacts. Semantic Web :: Technology, The Green Guide To establish the extent to which semantic web has been applied in the sustainable building technology domain, an extensive literature search was undertaken. One of the key findings of the review was that there was no real significant application of the semantic web to sustainable building technologies. The few studies with at least some sustainability issues in the built environment are in Macris and Georgakellos (2006) and Edum-Fotwe and Price (2009). Macris and Georgakellos (2006) explored the use of ontologies to help students to understand the contemporary global environmental issues, how they are linked and interrelated and to consider the different views of these issues, before reaching a decision or judgment. Edum-Fotwe and Price (2009), on the other hand, explored the use of ontologies in appraising sustainability of construction projects and development from the social component of sustainable development. The ontologies developed by Macris and Georgakellos (2006) and Edum-F otwe and Price (2009) are nothing more than academic papers and have never gone beyond prototypical system levels. However, it emerged that there is abundance of green/sustainability specifications/standards/ratings/metrics in the literature dealing with various aspects of sustainable constructions. Some examples of these specifications are the Market Transformation Programme database that contains the different building household appliances in the UK houses arranged in a well-defined taxonomy (Market Transformation Programme 2010; Firth et al. 2008; Wood and Newborough 2007), the Green Guide to Specifications (Anderson et al. 2009), the Uniclass (Smith et al. 1997) and the Leadership in Energy & Environmental Design (LEED 2010). The Green Guide aims to provide a simple green guide to the environmental impacts of building materials which is easy-to-use and soundly based on numerical data. Uniclass is a new recent classification scheme for the construction industryindustry (Smith et al. 1997). It is intended for organising library materials and for structuring product literature and project information. It incorporates both CAWS (Common Arrangement of Work Sections for building works) and EPIC (Electronic Product Information Co-operation), a new system for structuring product data and product literature. The Green Guide is part of BREEAM (BRE Environmental Assessment Method) an accredited environmental rating scheme for buildings. LEED is an internationally recognized green building certification system developed by the US Green Building Council, providing third-party verification that a building or community was designed and built using strategies intended to improve performance in metrics such as energy savings, water efficiency, CO2 emissions reduction, improved indoor environmental quality, and stewardship of resources and sensitivity to their impacts.

The Neanderthal Man In Retrospect

We have always been fascinated by Darwin and his theories of evolution. With so many â€Å"schools of thought† of how the earth came into existence, it seemed impossible to narrow down our choices, analyze each theory, and prove everything that it postulates. It was a clear indication that the search for our ancestors, and the â€Å"missing link† will continue until an answer is sought. But, will we ever find out? For now, that remains to be seen. The Neanderthal man is believed to be one of the â€Å"missing links† in our ancestry. Like the Cro-Magnon man, Peking man, and Java man, this â€Å"species† became extinct 32,000 years ago. The purpose of this paper is to familiarize the reader with the Neanderthal man and the possible theories that might have led to his extinction. The remains of the Neanderthal man, also known as Homo (sapiens) neanderthalensis, was discovered in 1856 by workers quarrying for limestone in Neander Valley, Dusseldorf, Germany. These fossils were also found in other parts of Europe and Asia. They were considered a subspecies of humans because upon examination, they had features that are almost similar with humans, except for heavy brow ridges, a long low skull, and a robust skeleton (Foley, 2002). Neanderthals were shorter than the modern man, and as previously stated, had prominent brow ridges. Aside from that, they had low, sloping foreheads, a chinless and heavy, forward-jutting jaw, extremely large front teeth, wider shoulders and pelvis, more conical rib cage, and shorter forearms and lower legs (Columbia Encyclopedia, 2005). Some scientists, majority of which are paleoanthropoloists, claim that these were not a subspecies of humans because of their more â€Å"primitive† appearance. According to Stringer and Gamble (1993), the Neanderthals are a late form of Homo erectus or a descendant of that species. It was believed that the Neanderthals have been living in Europe 200,000 years before the Homo sapiens arrived (BBC News, 2007).In van der Dennen’s Book Review Essay on Neanderthal Man (2005), he stated that: This was the first evidence of a distinct (and now extinct) species or subspecies of human, Homo (sapiens) neanderthalensis, that lived during the later part of the Pleistocene epoch, more familiarly known as the Ice Age, some 200,000 to 30,000 years ago. During 1917, Emil Bachler, in one of his excavations in the mountains of Switzerland, found no fossils of the Neanderthals (Van der Dennen, 2005). However, Mousterian tools and the remains of many cave bears were in abundance. Mousterian tools were most closely associated with Neanderthals. Bachler also felt that the bones and the tools were part of a ritual, and believed that the Neanderthals practice some sort of   â€Å"bear cult† (Van der Dennen, 2005). This led to the notion that the Neanderthals, like humans, had some form of communication and â€Å"culture†. When the fossil of this subspecies was studied by world-renowned pathologist and anatomist, Rudolf Virchow, he found out that the remains had evidence of rickets and osteoporosis, and he attributed this to the ape-like appearance of Neanderthals. Rickets and Osteoporosis is a manifestation of Vitamin D deficiency. Francis Ivanhoe (1970) in his paper supported Virchow’s   statement and postulated that the disease causes skeletal deformities and enlargement of the liver and spleen (Thompson, 2002). This maybe true because in the Pleistocene epoch, more commonly referred to as the â€Å"IceAge†, sunlight was a rarity. Vitamin D, in itself is stored in an inactive form and in order for it to be utilized by the body, it needs to be converted to its active form by UV rays (good source, sunlight). Therefore, it is not surprising that a number of fossils recovered during this era had evidence of bone deformities. However, Trinkaus and Shipman (1992), claimed that Neanderthal features are not caused by these bone diseases and argued that the bones of the 1st Neanderthal, were about 50% thicker than the average modern man. Klein (1989), supported this idea by comparing the long bones of Neanderthals and those of rickets’ victims. He claimed that both of their long bones are more curved than normal but rickets causes a sideways curvature of the femur, while Neanderthal femurs curve backwards. If Neanderthals are more human than ape, then it should follow that these subspecies should have survived today. Surprisingly, this is not the case. One of the earliest theories of the extinction believe that the â€Å"Ice Age† era, with its harsh climate, could have killed the Neanderthals. It points out that during this period, it was not only the climate that affected them, but the scarcity of resources were a factor as well. However, Professor Katerina Harvati, a palaeoanthroplogist from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, Germany, said: â€Å"The more controversial date of circa 24,000 years ago, places the last Neanderthals just before a major climate shift that would have been characterised by a large expansion of ice sheets and the onset of cold conditions in northern Europe† (Morrelle, 2007). Another theory is is the â€Å"candelabra model† or â€Å"multiregional evolution† theory. According to Trinkaus and Shipman (1992): â€Å"Though the evidence in different regions of the Old World records genuinely different events, nowhere is there evidence for violent confrontations between Neandertals and modern humans (myths notwithstanding). The mosaic of local evolution, migration, admixture, absorption, or local extinction of Neandertals was a complex process that occurred over the last 10,000 years† (p.416). But, Tattersall (2005), in his book, had another theory. He is convinced that the extinction of Homo neanderthalensis was brought about by the arrival of the more intelligent and   more adaptable Homo sapiens, and that the latter killed the race of the former. On his book he wrote: â€Å"It is vanishingly unlikely, however, that peaceful assimilation was an overall option, with groups of the two kinds of humans [the resident Homo neanderthalensis and the invading Homo sapiens or Cro-Magnons] exchanging members when they met and going their separate ways, or joining forces. More likely, perhaps, if intermixing is to be considered at all, is a scenario of well-equipped and cunning Homo sapiens descending on Neanderthal groups, killing the males – through strategy and guile, certainly not through strength – and abducting the females†(p. 202). However, there was no evidence of large scale killings (Richards, 1987), and the theory of â€Å"Biological displacement† was proposed. It states that the Neanderthals and modern man (Cro-Magnons), coexisted and lived side by side. But, due to the fact that humans are much more intelligent than these subspecies, they might have indirectly led to the extinction of Neanderthals by driving them away from their territories. These led to occasional violence between the groups, but, as expected the humans won, driving them to places with insufficient resources for sustenance. Ironicallly, the very species that are studying these Neanderthals are the cause of their extinction. Works Cited â€Å"Neanderthal Man.† Columbia Encyclopedia 6th edition. 2005. Foley, Jim. â€Å"Creationist Arguments: Neandertals† 31 October 2002. Talkorigins. 14 September 2007 http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/homs/a_neands.html Ivanhoe, Francis. â€Å"Was Virchow Right About Neanderthal?† 1970. Nature, 227:577-579 Klein, Richard. The Human Career: Human Biological and Cultural Origins. 1989. Morrelle, Rebecca. â€Å"Neanderthal Climate Link Debated†. 13 September 2007 BBC News. 15 September 2007 http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6992721.stm Richards, G. Human Evolution: An Introduction for the Behavioural Sciences. 1987. Stringer, Andrew and Clive Gamble. In Search of Neanderthals. 1993. Tattersall, Ian. The Last Neanderthal: The Rise, Success, and Mysterious Extinction of Our Closest Human Relatives. 2005. Thompson, Bert. â€Å"Neanderthal Man – Another Look.† May 2002. Apologetics Press. 15 September 2007 http://www.apologeticspress.org/articles/491 Trinkaus, E., and P. Shipman. The Neanderthals: Changing the Images of   Mankind. 1992. Van der Dennen, Johan. â€Å"The Continuing Essay of Neanderthal Man: Book Essay.† 2005. Rechten University of Goningen. 15 September 2007 http://rechten.eldoc.ub.rug.nl/FILES/departments/Algemeen/overigepublicaties/2005enouder/NEANDER/NEANDER.pdf â€Å"The Day We Learned To Think – Programme Summary.† 20 February 2007. BBC News. 14 September 2007 http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2003/learnthink.shtml   

Crime in Newark NJ community Free Essay Example, 1500 words

That port serves as the hub for shipments going to New York. The city also has Newark Liberty International Airport which is a very popular local airport (Westergaard, 2006). The races in Newark are varying that also come with the diverse cultures (Fredeen, 2001, p. 7). Its communities are different from one another having busy streets and silent places. As Newark serves as a city and busy region of New Jersey, crimes happen in higher rate than other locations. It was even labeled as one of the cities in USA with major threats and crimes (Roberts and Yeager, 2004, p. 837). Despite of that label, a major improvement occurred when the cases of murder went down recent years. Surveys were then conducted by different groups and they found Newark to be consistently part of the upper 25 towns and cities with many crimes around United States (Sperling and Sander, 2007, p. 329). Probably, Newark experiences its upward turn, but it still faces other problems like healthcare. In analyzing the healthcare support needed, a model called SDS or Symptom Distress Scale is used. We will write a custom essay sample on Crime in Newark NJ community or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/pageorder now It is also used to know the condition of the patients and how urgently the medical attention is needed (Bowling, 2001, p. 35). It then focuses on the state of mind or the psyche of the person being measured by the scale. It came from the Symptom Checklist which makes use of a questionnaire that the patient must answer and leads to understanding the psychiatric condition of the patient. Symptom Checklist then originated from Hopkins Symptom Checklist wherein 58 questions were contained. It described about six symptom categories. The improved checklist then contained 90 questions with nine subscales. All the scaling models then experienced problems in specifically describing each dimensions of mental illnesses. The results were fluctuating that made the scale not very reliable (MSHIP, n.d. ). McCorkle and Young (1978) then developed a symptom distress scale tested on fifty-three patients with advanced to terminal diseases. The results had scores of ten to forty one, but the scale still needs further studies as to its accuracy when it comes to other medical conditions and symptoms. The study then was followed by a more recent research on the scale created for cancer patients. Cleeland et. al. (2000) made use of 26 symptoms and six items answered by 527 respondents going out of the hospital, 30 patients for transplantation service and another 113 for outpatients. The scale was then put into test using statistics and lessened the symptom numbers on the list.

The Theme Of Family In Charles Dickenss A Christmas Carol

Charles Dickens weaves the theme of family, and all of its aspects, throughout his novel titled A Christmas Carol to create a compelling reminder of the value of perspective. The book’s main character, Scrooge, finds himself on a journey guided by three spirits, a journey which eventually serves to forever change his perspective on life. Dickens skillfully incorporates various pictures of family dynamics through all three of his â€Å"spirits†: The Ghost of Christmas Past, the Ghost of Christmas present, and the Ghost of Christmas yet to Come, evoking sentimental feelings in both the main character, Scrooge, and the reader. This story communicates the simple yet profound message that family, love, and kindness (all of which are commonly†¦show more content†¦Interestingly, this scene powerfully portrays the overarching theme of the book by illustrating what can happen when we compromise our perspectives. Following this bitter blow, the Ghost of Christmas Present leads Scrooge on a tour of two more families: that of his nephew and of his clerk. The vision of Scrooge’s clerk’s family – the Cratchits – paints an intricate example of the beauty of family. As Dickens explains, â€Å"They were not a handsome family; they were not well dressed; their shoes were far from being water-proof; their clothes were scanty†¦ But they were happy, grateful, pleased with one another, and contented with the times†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (page 54). The Cratchits possessed minimal earthly wealth, and even had an ill son, yet they displayed incredible joy! The joy, warmth, affection, and laughter surrounding the Cratchits’ Christmas celebration brought Scrooge to the realization that the â€Å"Christmas spirit† does not depend on any material possessions, or even on situations. Joy is a choice, and that choice is made easier when we are surrounded by the ones we love. The vision of Scrooge’s nephew serves to awaken Sc rooge to the fact that he himself had a family that would gladly welcome him. The nephew, in explaining to his family why he faithfully invited Scrooge to the celebration, said, â€Å"I mean to give him the same chance everyShow MoreRelatedCharles Dickens s Life And Life878 Words   |  4 PagesCharles Dickens was an adored, creative and respected British author of several literary pieces that are at this time are referred as classics. He was born on February 7, 1812, in Portsmouth which is located on the southern coast of England. Charles Dickens had a very rough upbringing. He didn’t have the ordinary life a child has. Between seven brothers and sisters he was the second born. His parents raised them together until his father whose name was John had accumulating amounts of debts whichRead MoreA Lack of Charity Essay example1718 Words   |  7 PagesIn Charles Dickens’s books, Oliver Twist and A Christmas Carol, the theme of lack of charity is pronounced. Throughou t Oliver Twist, society turns a â€Å"cold shoulder† to those in need of help (Miller 30). The Victorian England society prohibits inhabitants of the lower social realms from moving up in society. Rarely do lower class members receive attention, and the attention they do receive is far from par (Reeves). Ebenezer Scrooge, the main character of A Christmas Carol, learns to be charitableRead MoreScrooge in A Christmas Carol2375 Words   |  10 Pages In a time in which the significance of Christmas gradually started to change, Charles Dickens, in accordance with these changes, wrote a Christmas tale: A Christmas Carol. 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The latter objected toRead MoreVictorian Ghost Stories Nearly Always Encompass Family1361 Words   |  6 PagesStories nearly always encompass family life in some way or another. One reason for this may be to emphasize how abnormal a ghostly figure or hauntings really are within the story and get readers thinking, what would happen if that was happening to them? Making the stories feel more realistic to a Victorian readership. Family life within the era was held as one of the most important aspects of their day to day lives, therefore it is only natural for the theme of family to be present throughout manyRead MoreThe Main Contributions to Charles Dickens Popularity1592 Words   |  6 Pagesundeniable classics, many works of which we continue to read to this day. One author from this period, however, stands out in all respects of the word. His personal life, written works, and social commentary attribute to the widespread popularity that Charles Dickens managed to accumulate even after his death. He has been the subject of countless hours of research, studies, and literary critiques; regardless of one’s personal opinion, it is impossible to doubt the significance of Dickens and his entireRead MoreDickens Use of Language and Structure to Build Up a Picture of the Joy of Christmas Present1022 Words   |  5 PagesPicture of the Joy of Christmas Present I’m going to analyse stave 3 of a Christmas carol, Charles Dickens was born in Portsmouth in 1812. In 1836 Dickens published the first part in a serialisation called The Posthumous papers of the Pickwick club better known as The Pickwick papers. In 1843 he wrote his first and most famous Christmas story, A Christmas Carol. Victorians in those times, a lot of them lived in poverty, and they were lots of large families living in one houseRead MoreAnalysis Of Oliver Twist, A Christmas Carol, And A Tale Of Two Cities2379 Words   |  10 PagesOliver’s Twisted Story In February of 1837, Charles Dickens’s first installment of Oliver Twist was published. These installments continued to be published monthly until April of 1839. London during this time period was split almost directly down the middle, the upper class and the lower class, the middle being almost nonexistent. In the nineteenth century, the English government was ran adjacent with the church, although the harsh truth of lower class cruelty corrupts this image. The country, despiteRead More Charles Dickens Essay2085 Words   |  9 PagesCharles Dickens Charles John Huffam Dickens was born February 7, 1812, in Ports Mouth, Hampshire. 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A Utopia And Dystopia By George Orwell - 1831 Words

The concept of a utopia and dystopia is fascinating because they exist in both stories and real life and can be either based on a person’s ideals or perspective. A utopia is a situation in which the perfect ideals of a person or society are created or maintained. This situation can be real or imaginary as long as the person believes that they are equally happy. In contrast, a dystopia is a state in which an environment is extremely unfair and unjust, typically caused by oppression and dictatorship. In the book 1984, the citizens believe that they are living in a utopia because of the brainwashing of the party. The truth of this society is that the people are oppressed so much that an illusion of a utopia is created. In actuality, this society is deprived of their privacy, freedom of thought and information. Winston is the only person to realize that the society he lives in is a dystopia. He frequently points out the psychological manipulation, totalitarianism and the control o f history and language. In comparison, the characteristics of the society in 1984 closely resemble the dystopian characteristics of Jonestown. For one thing the citizens of both societies believe that they are living in a utopia following a tyrant. Another characteristic both societies have in common is the brainwashing of its citizens to obey their leader through the means of propaganda. There is only the illusion of a utopia in 1984 and Jonestown, thus the reality of the situation is that a utopia isShow MoreRelatedDystopia And Utopia In Animal Farm, By George Orwell980 Words   |  4 Pagesto attain. The story Animal Farm by George Orwell is an excellent example of why this goal is always out of reach. The animals wanted to create a better society for themselves where all are equal; nevertheless, as the story progressed, they ended up becoming the very dystopia they were trying to escape. The animals realized this at the end when â€Å"they looked from man to pig, and from pig to man again; but already it was impossible to say which was which† (Orwell 97). How is it possible to start a societyRead More1984 Dystopia Analysis1539 Words   |  7 Pagessomething great could be another worst nightmare. In some cases people mistake utopias for dystopias. A utopia is an ideal place of state or living (â€Å"Utopia†). A dystopia is a society of characterized by human misery, a squalor, oppression, disease, or overcrowding (â€Å"Dystopia†). In George Orwell’s book 1984 the society is depicted as a utopia when in reality it’s not the perfect place, it’s written to represent a dystopia. It takes place in 1984 in a dystopian America where it’s actually called â€Å"Ocieana†Read MoreUtopia As A Dystopia1190 Words   |  5 Pagesutopian world, but it isn’t always what people think. A utopia is described as â€Å"an imaginary and indefinitely remote place; a place of ideal perfection especially in laws, government, and social conditions; an impractical scheme for social improvement† (â€Å"Utopia†). However, a dystopia is described as â€Å"an imagined state or place in which everything is unpleasant or bad, typically a totalitarian or environmentally degraded one† (â€Å"Dystopia†). George Orwell’s purpose in writing 1984 was to warn the modernRead MoreUtopia Vs Dystopia1530 Words   |  7 Pagesdystopian literature than in the real world. A dystopia is defined as â€Å"a society characterized by human misery, as squalor, oppression, disease, and overcrowding† (â€Å"Dystopia†). Many dystopias brainwash their people into believing the laws and regulations that are set in that country are normal. Unfortunately, dystopias are commonly ruled by a leader who is unjust and uses his or her power to a dangerous and unlawful extent. In the book 1984 by George Orwell, the citizens of Oceania are forced into blindlyRead MoreUtopia Vs Dystopian Society1473 Words   |  6 Pagesand that mean s that not only have utopias been created but that dystopias have arrised. Each one is set and planned to be a utopia that only ends up taking another course and turning into a dystopian society. Utopia simply means â€Å"an ideal place or state†, where as a dystopia is the opposite (â€Å"utopia†). Dystopias is â€Å"a society characterized by human misery, as squalor, oppression, disease, and overcrowding† (â€Å"dystopia†). Utopias usually end up becoming dystopias because everyone has their own visionRead MoreA Utopia By George Orwell1477 Words   |  6 Pagescharacteristics of the society that americans live in now demonstrate a utopia, therefore, they also demonstrate a dystopia. A utopia is a perfect world in which there are no problems like war, disease, poverty, oppression, discrimination, inequality, and more universal problems existing. A dystopia is a world in which nothing is perfect. Problems are extreme things are dysfunctional and proble matic. A utopia does not turn into a dystopia until the people living in that society do not live authentic livesRead MoreIndian Version of Big Brother, Big Boss, Derived from George Orwells Novel, 19841097 Words   |  5 PagesBoss is in fact the Indian cousin of ‘Big Brother’, the internationally popular original show where contestants are closely monitored by cameras in the house and personal microphones. The term ‘Big Brother’ and the basic idea behind it originate from George Orwell’s novel 1984(NineteenEighty-Four) published first in 1949. Written in 1949 and set in 1984, the book is a futuristic view of a totalitarian society of Oceania that is present day Great Britian. The Queen is no longer the ruler of Britian. ItRead MoreLiterary Context Of Dystopian Literature1746 Words   |  7 Pageshave the same belief of a dystopian society, such is namely seen in Brave New World where people’s opinions between a dystopia and a utopia differ . One person’s utopia could be another person’s dystopia. Originating from the Greek prefix ou and suffix topos; the genre of dystopia can be translated into bad place however, it is more commonly known as dystopia or just simply anti-utopia. It is a fairly modern genre and is used by authors to criticize the many problems and political issues of the timeRead More1984 Analysis Essay631 Words   |  3 Pagesstrength. In George Orwells 1984, a light is shining on the concept of a negative utopia, or dystopia caused by totalitarianism. Totalitarianism is, a form of government in which political authority exercises absolute and centralized control over all aspects of lifeÂ… and any opposing political and/or cultural expressions are suppressed. Having lived in a time of totalitarianism regime, Orwell had a firsthand account of its horrific lengths and negative affects. Within 1984, Orwell derives aspectsRead MoreUtopia And Dystopia By Thomas More1472 Words   |  6 Pages Utopia and dystopia are two main narrative platforms that have been employed as vehicles for demonstrating social fabric of the society. They are constituents of speculative fiction which allows historians to evade some contentious facts of the past in order to create a new world. Notably, these terminologies have stood the test of time and they have proved to be paramount tools for affecting change in the society. Utopia is a Greek word which refers to no place. Since inception by Thomas More

Rustlers of Panther Gap Essay Example For Students

Rustlers of Panther Gap Essay By: Chris Harms The Rustlers of Panther Gap by Gilbert Morris is a Story of a boy who is determined to help his Indian Friends. The kids at school treat Hawk and Robin Leatherwood rotten, just because theyre Indians. When the Buck brothers stand up for their friends, they Become a target, too. Whats even worse, someone is Cutting down Mr. Leatherwoods valuable black walnut Trees and making off with wood! The sheriff and his deputies say theyre doing all They can, but they keep coming up empty-handed. Finally, the Bucks have had enough! Somebodys got to Catch the no-good, rotten, sneaky thief, and they figure It might as well be them! So Jake hatches a scheme. All Barney has to do is use Joes newest invention-the Amazing flying Solarcycle-to play detective from the Air! About a week after they had a plan and decided on what they were going to do, more trouble comes along. A couple of no good boys (the Dursleys) start to interrupt their plans by ruining their Solarcycle and starting fights with Barney and Jake. But that wont stop them, they decide to take off anyway. One evening after Barney had taken off with the Solarcycle and had cruised around above the trees for about an hour or so, Barney spotted something, he couldnt really get a good view so he decided to move in for a closer look. That was all he needed! He spotted the criminals, it was the S******, Barney was shocked! Right when he was about to turn around a bullet ripped through the Solarcycles wing. It was too late; the Solarcycle was spinning dangerously towards the ground. He hit the ground and was knocked out. The next thing he knew he woke up laying down and the s****** leaning over him. Suddenly the s****** was pointing a gun at his head and said he was going to kill him for spying on him. When suddenly lights appeared all over and voices said, Back away from the kid, put your hands above your head! And he did so, and everyone lived happily ever after except for the S******. THE END Word Count: 357